SCHOOLING IN RURAL AREAS 51 even at the rate of one point per year.1 The present educational system is largely reinforcing the basic socio-economic structure with its social hierarchy and flagrant inequalities. Exapansion is by and large taking place in a laissez fair style, without purposeful interventions. In terms of distribution of gains, what is happening over the economy as a whole also gets reflected in the sphere of education. Considering the fact that 40 per cent of the Indian population is below the subsistence level and another 30 per cent marginally above it, it is hardly surprising that 63.53 per cent of the population should be illiterate. The development of education is highly unequal between urban and rural populations. The concentration of education facilities increases progressively as we move from small towns to cities to large cities and then to metropolitan centres. The progress of literacy and school education in rural areas is following a similar pattern to that in urban areas. Education is confind to large central villages and within the village, progress has been made by the socio-economically better-off sections of the population. The socio-economically backward sections are lagging behind. There is a wide gulf between men and women in the literacy rate and it is all the greater in economically backward areas. In terms of caste, the upper and trading castes were literate at the time of independence; these communities progressed further in secondary and higher education. They were followed by middle castes whose main occupation was farming. These castes also made considerable advance, both in literacy and primary education. They are now trying to push forward to higher levels. But scheduled castes and and tribes and other economically backward sections are woefully lagging behind, in spite of special provisions for them in the Constitution. Using the criterion of land ownership, we find that the landlords and well-to-do peasants, who have controlled all institutions related to the political economy of the village, are pushing ahead in education, while the poor peasants and landless labourers are highly neglected and continue to be illiterate. The educated youth of the new generation of the rich peasants and landlords are the new elite who dominate the socio-economic and political institutions of the village and of the town. Advanced technology in agriculture as well as adult franchise and political participation have nevertheless helped the middle castes and the nee-rich to control strategic positions in the politico-administrative system of the society. Education has helped in strengthening their positions. The secondary and higher education further enhances their earning potential, occupational opportunity, political strength and social status. In the context of the foregoing remarks, it can be said that development in education in the country cannot be considered in