MIGRANTS IN COAL MINES 19 balance in sex-ratio and in age composition does not necessarily indicate the .growth of a srettled, stabilized industrial work force cut off from pre-capitalist agriculture and other subsistence activities. The mine labour force that evolved in the Bengal-Bihar coalfields provides a graphic illustration of such a case. In the classic case of the coal mine industry in nineteenth century Britain women and children formed a substantial proportion of the labour force. In the Indian mining labour force too till late 1920s women and, to a lesser extent, children constituted important elements.5 (Children were prohibited from underground work in 1923 and women in 1929). Ever since the beginning of the colliery industry the mine workers—overwhelmingly Santals, Bauris and other so-called aboriginal groups—used to work in family groups consisting of husband, wife and children.() While the adult males or miners proper cut the coal at the pit face, women and children loaded it into baskets or tubs and carried it to the shaft bottom. Women were employed in a variety of work on the surface too. Available data show that in early 1920s women constituted around a third of the total mine workers. Yet the mine workers had close connections with the rural economy and society and they continued to have such connections till the end of our period or even thereafter. Throughout the period it was a most common practice on the part of^the mine workers to leave the mines for work on the land for several weeks at a stretch particularly in the two major agricultural seasons of sowing and transplanting in June and July and harvesting in November and December, and it was found that the supply of labour closely depended on the agricultural cycle. An exodus took place also in the marriage season of March and April. For the sake of convenience of analysis it is possible to speak of four different time periods: 1850-1895, 1895-1920, 4920s, 1930s and 1940s. The above remained a common feature for each of the four periods. a) 1850-1895 Here are some pieces ot evidence relating to the earliest years. From one 1846 correspondence it is learnt that there was shortage of labour as people were busy in cutting paddy.7 In 1860 it was reported that abundant rice had interfered with labour supply to Bengal Coal Co. mines.8 In 1861 a mine manager in the Ranigunge areas informed the Calcutta office: "Owing to the cutting of the paddy crop the full complement of miners have not been at work....'^ The miners frequently absented themselves also on the occasion of all kinds of festivals—social as well as religious—usually associated with a rural society10 In February 1862 G.F. Lords, Superintendent, Bengal Coal Co., Raniganj, reported that two native festivals during the week and also "numerous native marriages" affected production." As mentioned earlier, for many decades mine labour force was not composed predominatly of adult males, and till late 1920s mine work was organized on a family basis. Thus withdrawal from mine work and return to