4 SOCIAL SCIENTIST "mendicancy". Swaraj, Swadeshi and national education constituted the programme for mobilising the common people. A new generation of young men and women dedicated themselves to the cause of Swaraj, prepared to make the supreme sacrifice at the altar of national freedom. They followed the revolutionary movement throughout the world, looking upon the heroes of revolutionary struggles in any other country as models for their own action. The international working class and socialist movements and the teachings of Marx began to exert their influence on the thinking of Indian youth. A biography ofKarl Marx appeared more or less simultaneously in Hindi and Malayalam, Tilak and his colleagues had immense influence on the young men and women who dedicated themselves to the cause of revolutionary struggle for Indian freedom. It was at this stage that revolutionary groups appeared in Bengal, Punjab and to a certain extent in other provinces as well—groups which were denounced as "terrorists" by the British rulers, using the bomb and the revolver to do away with the hated individuals belonging to the British bureaucracy and their agents among the Indians. Similar groups were formed in foreign countries where Indians were living and working. Revolutionary Groups Abroad These groups of revolutionaries working abroad started planning the liberation of India with assistance from powers hostile to the British. A Ghadar Party was formed in the U.S. in 1913 with a view to unify the scattered Indian revolutionary and patriotic organisations which had earlier emerged in the U.S. and Canada. Similar groups were formed in some of the European countries and tried to get financial and military aid from Britain's main imperialist rival, Germany, for an anti-British armed uprising in India. The essence of leftism, or what may be called "the politics of militancy", thus consisted of the use of force against individual representatives of the British power by those who are working inside the country and the assistance of Britain's imperialist rivals for liberating India from outside. British imperialism, however, was able to suppress the revolutionary groups which had been operating in India before and during the war. The few efforts made abroad to liberate India with material and military assistance from foreign powers also ended in a fiasco. Two developments of post-war years, however gave new ^life to the left and helped it to assume new forms. The first was internal. Resentment was growing among all sections of the Indian people against the policies and actions of the British Government to which concrete expression was given by the Congress and the Muslim League which gradually developed into a new mass upsurge—the non-co-operation or the Khilafat movement. Initiated by Mahatma Gandhi with full co-operation from the Muslim leaders who carried a special grievance on account of the treatment meted out by the imperialists to the Turkish Khalifa^ the movement enveloped