EMPLOYMENT IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE 21 10. And the all India change in labour use due to changes in cropping patterns is: 13 n X Z 4|2 (Aii2—A«i) — (9) above (10) i=l j=l } (Thanks are due to D.S. Tyagi who checked the methodology described above; and devised the notation appropriate for it). NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. For example: soil type, terrain, height above sea level, the amount of rainfall annually and its seasonal distribution. 2. Including market roads, public major, medium and minor irrigation works, the extent of rural electrification, and the degree of development of local credit, input supply and equipment repair facilities. 3. Also in all regions except those where negative employment elasticities with respect to yield are recorded for the period 1970-71 to 1983-84. See Section III of this paper for details. 4. See NSS Report No 330, page 28. 5. For a detailed discussion see Abhijit Sen, 'A Note on Employment and Living Standards in the Unorganised Sector', Social Scientist, Feb. 1988. 6. The findings quoted or cited in the second half of this paragraph are all from Abhijit Sen, op. dt. 7. Abhijit Sen, op. dt. 8. T.S. Papola, 'Restructuring in Indian Industry: Implications for Employment and Industrial Relations', (A study prepared for ILO-ARTEP), New Delhi, 1988. 9. T.S. Papola, op. dt. p. 22. 10. T.S. Papola/ op. dt. p. 25. 11. There were some early studies, which generated elastidties as low as 0.3, but for that period, as the ICSSR working group headed by Sukhomoy Chakaravarty put it: 'It cannot be 0.3 because with agricultural output growth rate of 2.7 (1950-71) per cent, it yields the employment growth rate of 0.71 per cent per annum', whereas the impact of growth of area under cultivation alone (including all positive changes in employment due to technology, crop mix changes and land relations effects), should have generated 'a floor rate of 1.2 per cent per annum'. (Report of the ICSSR Working Group on Alternatives in Agricultural Development, mimeo, p. 37; July 1978, later published by Allied Publishers as Alternatives in Agricultural Development, New Delhi, 1980. The possibility of per hectare labour absorption falling for a wide range of crops did not apply during the period referred to. 12. The terms 'technologies' and 'technological change' are used here loosely. What is observed is the choice of a yield-improving package of inputs commonly involving changes in pre-existing factor proportions, in which both relative price considerations and technological possibilities have played a role. 13. The term was first applied to this kind of situation by Cliford Geertz. See C. Geertz, 'Agricultural Involution, the Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia', in Richard Jolly et al (eds). Third World Employment: Problems <& Strategy, Penguin, 1973. 14. G.S. Bhalla and D.S. Tyagi, District Wise Analysis of Agricultural Performance in India, preliminary results (1988). 15. Satya Paul, for example, using FMS data, found that wheat growers in Ferozepur enjoy economies of scale. See Satya Paul, 'A Cost Function Analysis of Wheat Production in India', European Review of Agricultural Economics, Vol 14(2), 1987. See also: G.K. Chadha, 'Farm Size and Productivity Revisited: Some Notes from Recent Experience of Punjab', EPW Review of Agriculture, 30 Sept. 1978. 16. 388,216.19 thousand mandays out of an all-India total of 851,314.89 attributable to changes in labour intensity.