CONTOURS OF COMMUNALISM: RELIGION, CASTE AND IDENTITY 131 directly to wider caste, class and status concerns which, under colonial intervention, had been provided with fresh opportunities. The Socio-economic foundations of the Communal Riots: Case Studies. In order to understand the dynamics of Hindu-Muslim strife in this region, certain case studies of the most publicized "communal riots" may be taken up. The three most notorious riots occurred in a single district of Ambala division, i.e., Rohtak, in the villages of Kanaudha, Jakholi and Kharkhoda. Kanaudha Riot The Kanaudha riot of 1933 created a great stir in Rohtak.2 The Inquilab of Lahore, dated 3 October 1933, gave a highly coloured version of the affair under the caption: "Grievances of the Musalmans of Kanaudha, Rohtak District." The news item accused the Hindu Jats of forcibly attacking and stopping the Muslims from constructing a mosque on a piece of land which was reported to have been in the possession of Muslims for generations. In the resultant clash between the two, the old mosque was declared to have been demolished by Jats. The Jats were also accused of carrying away its old woodwork and the newly ordered bricks meant for rebuilding it. The government officials were reported to have arrested and challaned (viz.summoned to court) many Muslims. A number of Muslims sent written complaints to the deputy commissioner and even to the viceroy. Outside help was also sought. A petition for help was sent to the Jumma Masjid managing committee of Delhi. The committee in return widely exaggerated the incident and inflamed the religious feelings of Muslims everywhere. The danger of outsiders aggravating and exploiting the situation was genuine as Kanaudha was situated on the border of the Delhi and Rohtak districts. Consequently, several arrests were made under the security section of the criminal procedure code. The two Urdu weeklies published from this district, the fat Gazette and Haryana Tilak, commented more or less in the same way, highlighting the religious identities of the parties involved.3 Both also noted that the initial cause of quarrel was the desire of Muslims to build a mosque on the village shamilat (common) land. Interestingly enough, the deputy commissioner's confidential report and the confidential fortnightly report of the Punjab government on "communal matters" also noted briefly the attempt of Muslims to build a mosque on the village common land and resistance of the Hindu Jats to it, as the basic cause of the riot in village Kanaudha.4 The undivided village common land indeed provided the requisite material for the very frequent quarrels in villages. This was testified to by all the deputy commissioners of this division. The village common land was never one consolidated chunk of land but included