CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE 1930-31 from prison in February 1924, Gandhi had thrown himself body and soul into the pursuit of his 'constructive programme', concentrating on 'Swadeshi', especially through the promotion of khadi (hand-spun and hand-woven cloth), Hindu-Muslim unity, and the removal of untouchability; he also preached temperance and the need for spreading education. His major objective was the villages, and he combined extensive tours with careful organisational work, building up bodies such as the Khadi Board. By 1928 he had built up a network of centres and volunteers throughout India, giving him practical access to hundreds of thousands of the rural poor. In the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, braving intermittent imprisonments, built up an educational and social movement among the Pathans, centred round the Pakhtoon Jirga, established in 1926; it would soon become a vanguard component of national movement. The Swarajist appeal lay more among the educated middle classes despite their late leader C.R. Das's (d.1925) declared commitment to "the 98 per cent". But their continuous and often able opposition to the British government in the central legislative assembly (where even after 1926 they held 38 out of the 100 elected seats) and provincial councils, constantly projected the nationalist case to everyone who read newspapers. Beyond these two major components of the Congress camp, there was beginning to come into the picture a new current, admittedly affected by the resolute opposition to imperialism by Soviet Russia, and the practical illustration it gave to the liberation of workers and peasants under socialism. Its most prominent exponent was Jawaharlal Nehru, son of the Swarajist leader Motilal Nehru. In December 1927, at the Congress session at Madras having "recently arrived from Russia, addressed the delegates as v comrades'."4 He also moved a resolution which was duly passed, much to the chagrin of the established leaders, declaring that "the goal of the Indian people was complete national independence." With Subhas Chandra Bose, he had just established the Independence for India League to organise radical youth for the cause. Under the new socialist impulse there was a re-orientation of the revolutionary nationalist groups as well. Trying to recover from the Kakori Conspiracy Case (following upon the train attack at Kakori on 8 August 1925), in which four revolutionaries (Ashfaqullah, Bismil, Roshan Singh and Lahiri) were hanged, and twenty-one others sentenced to life and long-term imprisonments. In March 1926 Bhagat Singh founded the