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measurement includes several stages: classification and quantification or scaling (search for quantitative expressions and ratios).
Given proper understanding of the essence of phenomena, the aspects of reality they reflect and the information they yield, it is possible to quantify not only objective but also subjective phenomena, and even such other aspects as, for instance, peopled opinion of one another, intellectual level, degree of man's will and volitional qualities (purposefulness of aciion and behaviour). The question whether the relative importance of the diverse traits of man (society or a phenomenon) should find a place in the model transcends the bounds of pure mathematical methods and should be examined from the philosophical standpoint.
All this plays an important role in the basic functions of scientific theory—scientific explanation and prognostication. Scientific explanation is an attempt to link certain known or newly-discovered facts to the laws and hypotheses already established and accepted in theory. If this attempt fails, it becomes necessary to create a new theory or supplement the old one with new laws and hypotheses from which one can obtain the description of the fact to be explained (as was the case with Einstein's Theory of Relativity). Scientific prognostication is an effort to obtain information about cither some unknown but possibly existing phenomena or those which do not exist at all at the time of prognostication. It is an attempt at establishing a relation to what can or must arise in the future.
Scientific Forecasting
It is obvious that explanation and prognostication are of vast practical importance not only for natural and military sciences but such social sciences as politics, sociology and international affairs. Attempts were made long ago to predict socio-historical processes, but scientific prognostication in this field is possible only on the basis of Marxism-Leninism, dialectical and historical materialism. Marxist-Leninist theory is free from all the subjective and casual appraisals which are typical of bourgeois science. This can be illustrated by examples. In the negotiations for peace in 1918, notwithstanding the onerousness of the terms-Lenin insisted on their acceptance, despite furious opposition from Buk, harm, Trotsky and their supporters. He did so because, first, he understood the vital need for a breathing space for the young Soviet state, and secondly, he foresaw that the treaty would not last for long. Only eight months passed, the November events of 1918 in Germany overthrew Kaiser Wilhelm II, and the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was annulled.
Another telling example of Marxist scientific prognostication in the field of international relations is provided by the documents of the 18th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik). The Congress gave a profound analysis of the international situation and concluded that the Munich policy of the Western powers was directed at ultimately freeing the hands of the fascist aggressors for war against the USSR as a result of which the most probable opponent of the Soviet