EMERGENCE OF NATIONALITIES 15 relationship between nation and state. A nation not only consists of people sharing a common culture. To be a nation, it is further necessary, in the words of John Stuart Mill writing as early as 1861, that they "desire to be under the same government, and desire that it should be government by themselves, or a portiop of themselves^ exclusively." Inherent in the concept of the nation is the existence of a popular consciousness of the desirability of a separate entity of that nation as a sovereign state. It is this last feature that distinguishes a nation of the modern era from all earlier countries and kingdoms which might have contained peoples speaking common languages and sharing common cultures. There was an Arab people at the rise of Islam; and there was at Muhammad's death even a state containing practically all the Arabic-speaking tribes. But there was no Arab nation, because there was no popular urge (expressed in any form whatsoever) for the formation of a separate state containing the Arabs alone. The 'popular sanction5 behind the formation of a nation makes the nation a modern phenomenon, mainly because it is the modern instruments of communications and transport, the printing press, the roads and railways that have enabled a real popular national consciousness to be created. Rise of cation-states It is generally supposed that the earliest nations were represented by the 'nation-states' of Spain, Portugal, France, England and Holland emerging during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, That is, the nations originated, as Stalin puts it, in "the process of the elimination of feudalism and the development of capitalism". But in central and eastern Europe, nations emerged only with the Industrial Revolution. During the earlier part of the nineteenth century, Metternich could get away with calling Italy a mere "geographical expression^ and even France was not fully a nation, until the French Revolution of 1789 removed in its flood the multiple local loyalties. This slow creation of nations until the eighteenth century, and their emergence all over Europe and other parts since the closing years of that century, are not just the results of the corresponding pace of development of the means of communication. The bourgeoisie trying to create domestic markets behind national walls played the crucial role in creating nations. "The market", says Stalin quite aptly, "is the first school in which the bourgeoisie learns its nationalism". In studying the process of the formation of nations, one must of course expect enormous complexities. There are cases where two allied languages are involved, and there may be a battle for 'popular sanction' between the advocates of a united nation and those of two separate nations. Macedonia, in relation to Bulgaria, offers a striking example of such a situation. Or again, there may be a common culture,, but the urge for a