54 SOCIAL SCIENTIST peculiar to manufacture., is a specific product of the capitalist mode of production. Manufacture, by developing the division of labour, and splitting up handicraft-based labour processes into a number of detail operations, destroys the precapitalist artisan strata. These artisans now become mere detail labourers, one-sided and deficient in their overall development, even as the ^collective labourer', that is, all the workers in the workshop taken together, becomes more efficient and productive. In the course of its evolution, manufacture with its needs for both simple and complex labour, creates the need for workers having different levels of education and training. As Marx puts it, ^Manufacture, therefore, develops a hierarchy of labour powers, to which there corresponds a scale of wages."80 Manufacture also involves some simple operations, requiring no training at all, and common to almost all manufacturing processes. This leads to the development of a class of unskilled workers with no education at all, a class which handicraft industry did not possess and which is the specific creation of capitalist manufacture. Class Character of Manufacture The political and ideological implications of these two developments — that of hierarchy of labour powers and that of the sharp separation between skilled and unskilled — are indeed very important, and help one to understand the basis of opportunist and reformist trends in the working-class movement. The development of a class of unskilled labourers in addition directly contributes to relative surplus value by lowering the costs of reproduction of labour power (saving the expenses of apprenticeship). Manufacture makes production on a large scale both possible and necessary. It thus requires the capitalist to lay out a greater sum of money both for hiring an increased number of labourers (on account of the division of labour) and for purchasing raw materials and auxiliary materials (a greater quantity of which is consumed per unit of time now on account of the higher productivity of labour). Thus manufacture implies a larger and growing concentration of capital in the hands of each capitalist. The significance of such a tendency— a continuous increase in the minimum outlay of capital needed to engage in business—is that it extends "the transformation into capital of the social means of production and subsistence." With the development of manufacture, the nature of production is at once increasingly social and increasingly capitalist. The evolution of manufacture and the increasing division of labour that accompany it lead progressively to a complete loss of the worker's independence. Not only does manufacture develop a hierarchy of labour, and turn the skilled artisan into a detail labourer, it also leads to a