EDUC ATION AND PO TABL LITICS IN KE E I ;RALA 5 EXPEND ITVRE C )N EDUCATION, TR. AVANCORE-COCH IN AND KERAIA Total expend (In Rv itiite lakh^) Percentage of total expenditure on revenuf account Plan Social senice^ total (In Rv lakh^) expenditure Of which education in percentage (l) W m (4) (5) 1951-52 247 18.0 44 2 1953-54 349 34.0 48 9 1955-56 575 29.5 89 8 1956-57 711 34.9 190 24 1957-58 958 37.8 441 37 1958-59 1 374 36.0 646 44 1959-60 1 475 34.8 632 41 1960-61 1 621 33.5 844 48 SOURCES: C olumns 2 and 3: P Radakrishnan Nair, "A Study of Educational Finance," (Unpublished M Ed thesis, Trivandrum 1961) Appendix E; Columns 4 and 5: Census 1961, vol III, part [ A (I), p 718, the matter of promoting education whether for proselytization or profit, or perhaps for self-rewarding social service557, but the chaotic free-for-all situation could not be allowed to continue. It was alleged that the private managers looked upon their schools as print-making concerns where student fees kept rising unusually fast and teacher appointments turned into a sort of auction, the jobs going to the highest bidders who, anyway, would land up in a ^disgraceful situation in which they were treated as servants of the management.'5" The profit motive was explained by some as a necessary corollary to the economic structure of the state. With neither a manufacturing bourgeoisie, nor many managerial outlets in industry, the moneyed class recognized the commercial opportunities of the educational field as opposed to industrial enterprise.9 The injustice towards teachers was augmented by the rising educated unemployment which was directly related to the nature of the educational system. Already in the early thirties Sir G P Ramaswamy Aivar, the then Dewan of Travancore, had warned that one could '^foresee that middle-class unemployment which is every day on the increase, will necessarily lead to a situation which will be intolerable .. There is therefore also a great political necessity for reorganizing our system of education.5?le In 1957, according to the statistics provided by the Government of Kerala, more than 20 per cent of the population of the state was attending the nearly ten thousand schools with well over eigthy thousand teachers. Apart from the qualitative problem of standardization and diversification towards more technical training, the government felt that the most acute problems were those of regulating the working and the powers of the various institutions under the ministry of education. Whatever the amount of corruption, scandals and grievances in the