BEEF-EATING IN ANCIENT INDIA 53 pletion of their studies are to be honoured with the presentation of a bull or a barren cow to be slaughtered — hence, a guest is denominated in the Vedic literature as goghna or cow-killer.21 The ceremony of madhuparka is notable in this context. The madhuparka ceremony seems to have been very old because the custom of entertaining a distinguished guest with beef is found both in the Satapatha Brahmana 22 and the Aitareya Brahmana^ and it was in all likelihood known also in the Rgvedic period. Moral Codes and Beef'eating We now turn to the Smrti literature. Manu, like Vasistha, sanctions the consumption of the flesh of all domestic animals which have but one row of teeth.34 That this would obviously include beef becomes clear from the comments of even such orthodox pundits like Medhatithi and Raghavananda.25 Manu also recommends the madhuparka with beef for the reception of kings.26 The Yajnavalkya-smrti distinctly lays down that a mah-oksa or *big buir is to be slaughtered on such occasions.27 In fact, both the Manu and Yajnavalkya-smrtis permit the killing of bovine species on such special occasions, in sacrifices and in rites for manes etc.; otherwise beef-eating was regarded as upapataka or minor offence, though not mahapataka} or mortal sin.28 In spite of the individual predilections of the author of Manu-smrti, who was a staunch upholder of ahimsa, who even said that no flesh can be had without killing living beings and killing such beings cannot lead to heaven and so one should give up flesh eating,29 the general usage was different in his times and centuries were required before the views propounded by Manu became predominant.30 From Ancient Science and Literature The ancient medical works like the Charaka Samhita recommend beef for pregnant women, but prohibits it for everyday use for everybody.31 R L Mitra enlightens us that in some medieval Indian medical works beef soup is especially recommended for people recovering from fainting fits.32 The Epics allude to the gomedha without any details. In the 'Vanaparva5 of the Mahabharata^ it is stated that animals killed in sacrifices to the accompaniment of Vedic mantras went to heaven and it narrates the story of king Rantideva in whose sacrifices two thousand animals, including cows, were killed every day. In the 'Udyogaparva' king Nahusha was cursed and hurled down from heaven by the great sage Agastya because he ventured to cast doubts on the Vedic injunctions for the sacrifice of cows and