60 SOCIAL SCIENTIST 39 Bsntham carried out a double critique of the two previous traditions]in political theory—Burkean conservatism and the theory of natural rights—on the ground that these were "metaphysical", that is, undemonstrable by logical reasoning. 40 Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees fl714). For an exposition of his challenge to orthodoxies in social theory, see Joan Robinson, Economic Philosophy, London, Watts, 1962. 41 On the numerous logical difficulties of this idea, Otto Neurath, "The Principle of the Pleasure ^[aximum", Empiricism and Sociology, Dordrecht, D Reidcl, 1973. 42 Mill's modifications were introduced in his essay Utilitarianism. 43 Mill, Principles of Political Economy (1848). 44 Ibid, Book IV, Chapter 7. 45 Marx, Grundrisse, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1973, p 883. •^ Ibid. 47 Tawney sought to revive it through a powerful polemic against the strong drift of mainstream academic opinion, R H Tawney, Equality, London, Alien and Unwin, 1931. 48 I do not intend to underestimate the practical significance of the institutions of the rule of law. It must be kept in mind that a large part of the institutions of the rule of law was won by an insurgent proletariat. Unimaginative use of the term "bourgeois democracy" may tend to hide this important historical and political truth. 49 Not the poor or the unprivileged but "ordinary" in the sense of being inexpert. 00 William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mi^ Society, ^London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960. Kornhauser obligingly provides summaries at the end of each section which, by condensing his argument, bring out the vulgarity of the theory. 51 Often, Weber and Djrkheim are criticized, rather unjustly, not for what thsy had said but for what their behavioural admirers make of them. Weber and Durkheim were serious critics of Marx and were surely two of the greatest minds in post-Marx social thinking. 53 For an interesting redefinition of d^nocracy on these lines, Almond and Verba, The Civic Culture, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1963. 53 A phr ase symbolic of the general cognitive pessimism of this trend introduced by David Easton, since extensively used by political scientists oblivious of the irony. 54 This was particularly evident in the work of the Praxis school of Yugoslavia, for example, in the workofGajo Petrovic, Svetojar Stoyanovic, Milan Pruca and others. fi5 There have been only two serious attempts to d 3 this: Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes, London, NLB, 1973; and Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Sysiety, Loil3n, Weidennsld and Nicolson, 1969. Since then, Poulantzas has added State, 'Powsr, Socialism, London, NLB, 1978. Miliband has followed up with a m3re general treatment, Marxism and Politics, Oxford, OUP, 1977. 66 Marcuse, One Dimensional Man, Chapter 2. 87 Althusser, For Marx, London, Alien Lane, 1959, "On the Young Marx". 68 Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts, Moscow. 59 Althusser, op cit. For an opposite reading, Adam ]Schaff,|Mir^w and the Human Individual, New York, McGraw Hill, 1970. 80 Earnst Fisher, Mirx in flu Ou)n Words, Harm^ndsworth, Penguin, 1973, p 47. 61 Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts, particulary the sections on "Estranged Labour" and "The Power of Money in Bourgeois Society". 62 Marx, Capital, Vol I, Moscow, p 172. 6s Alfred Schmidt, "Karl Mirx, 1818-1958, Bad Godesberg, Internationes, 1968, "On the Concept of Knowledge in the Criticism of Political Economy**. e!t Marx, Contribution to Critique of HegeVs Philosophy of Right, Introduction.