4 SOCIAL SCIENTIST Khadafi regime: the king was head of the Senussi brotherhood, the only nationwide religious organization Libya knew. Moreover, in pre-revolutionary Libya westernized upper and middle class groups were very small, and for most Libyans KhadafTs Islamic ideology has not been a return to the Islamic tradition, but simply a somewhat modified continuation of a pre-existing ideological pattern. Pakistan has never been a completely secular state either, based as it was on the Muslim desire for a separate state when former British India became independent. Pakistani society is much more differentiated than Libyan society, however. Non-Muslim minorities, though existing, are relatively small, but ethnic separatism, of the Bengali in the later state of Bangladesh, and of the Pashtun and Baluchi in West Pakistan itself, has always been a potential and sometimes an actual threat to the existence of a Pakistani state where ethnic elements from Sind and Punjab have always been dominant. Westernized upper and middle class groups exist, and their influence on governmental affairs has been strong. The country has known considerable political instability during the 33 years of its independence, but most of its successive regimes have not accentuated the Islamic character of the state overmuch. Only the leader of the last military coup, General Zia-ul Haq, has tried to give his regime an ideological basis by referring to a return to the Islamic origins. In Afghanistan, the Islamic political movement has much more clearly the character of a counter-revolution. There had been little, if any, religious opposition to the monarchy or to Baud's regime which succeeded the monarchy and which still left power in the hands of a faction, though possibly a slightly more progressive one, of the old ruling class. Only the rise to power of three successive governments of a Marxist orientation has given rise to armed resistance by at least 13 different organizations. It is difficult at the moment to trace the social or regional backgrounds of all these organizations, but all of them claim to fight in the name of Islam. Turkey is the only Muslim country where a stable reformist regime, Kemal Pasha's government in the nineteen-twenties and thirties, has ever aggressively asserted the secular character of the state. In fact, however, both the Islamic character and the internal class contradictions of the Turkish nation were only temporarily covered up by Kemal Pasha's strong regime. They came to the surface again after the second world war, when the old regime weakened and its rule petered out into economic stagnation, a stalemate situation between rival political parties, increasing